Universal Dependencies

The multi-word expression (modifier) relation is used for certain fixed grammaticized expressions with function words that behave like a single function word. Multiword expressions are annotated in a flat, head-initial structure, in which all words in the expression modify the first one using the mwe label.

At present, this relation is used inside the following expressions:

as well

I like dogs as well
advmod(like, as)
mwe(as, well)

as well as

I like dogs as well as cats
mwe(as-4, well)
mwe(as-4, as-6)
cc(dogs, as-4)

such as

I like fluffy animals , such as dogs
case(dogs, such)
mwe(such, as)

due to (and other forms, such as d t and d/t)

He cried due to the fact that you hurt him
case(fact, due)
mwe(due, to)

because of (and other forms, such as b c of and b/c of)

He cried because of you
case(you, because)
mwe(because, of)

instead of

John went instead of Mary
mwe(instead, of)
case(Mary, instead)

John left early instead of staying for the whole thing
mwe(instead, of)
mark(staying, instead)

in case

I always back up my files in case my computer crashes
mwe(in, case)
mark(crashes, in)

I always back up my files just in case
mwe(in, case)
advmod(back, in)
advmod(in, just)

in case of

I always back up my files in case of a crash
mwe(in, case)
mwe(in, of)
case(crash, in)

of course

I like dogs , of course
advmod(like, of)
mwe(of, course)

so that

He cried so that you would feel bad
mark(feel, so)
mwe(so, that)

more than (when used synonymously with “over” in a quantity)

More than 90 percent
advmod(percent, More)
mwe(More, than)

less than (when used synonymously with “under” in a quantity)

Less than ten percent
advmod(percent, Less)
mwe(Less, than)

up to (when used in quantities)

Up to fifty percent
mwe(Up, to)
advmod(percent, Up)

according to

According to John
mwe(According, to)
case(John, According)

in order

He cried in order to make you feel bad
mark(feel, in)
mwe(in, order)

He cried in order that you might feel bad
mark(feel, in)
mwe(in, order)

He cried in order for you to have something to feel bad about
mark(have, in)
mwe(in, order)

rather than

I decided to get a dog rather than a cat
mwe(rather, than)
cc(rather, dog)

at least (when not used for quantities)

At least I like dogs
mwe(At, least)
advmod(like, At)

as if

It was as if he cried to make you feel bad
mwe(as, if)
mark(cried, as)

prior to

John left prior to the meeting
mwe(prior, to)
case(meeting, prior)

as to

As to whether I love dogs ...
mwe(As, to)
mark(love, As)

As to my love of dogs ...
mwe(As, to)
case(love, As)

kind of

I kind of like dogs
mwe(kind, of)
advmod(like, kind)

whether or not

He 's crying whether or not you feel bad about it
mwe(whether, or)
mwe(whether, not)
mark(feel, whether)

not to mention

This restaurant is pretty cheap with good food, not to mention their friendly staff
mwe(not, to)
mwe(not, mention)
cc(cheap, not)
conj(staff, cheap)

as opposed to

John decided to leave early , as opposed to Mary
mwe(as, opposed)
mwe(as, to-9)
case(Mary, as)

let alone

He could n't handle being hurt , let alone hurt by you
mwe(let, alone)
cc(hurt-6, alone)
conj(hurt-6, hurt-10)

so as to

John left early so as to miss the meeting
mwe(so, as)
mwe(so, to)
mark(so, miss)

in between

John left in between meetings
mwe(in, between)
case(in, meetings)

all but

John has all but left
mwe(all, but)
advmod(all, left)

that is

The dogs need to be housebroken -- that is , '' potty - trained ''
mwe(that, is)
advmod(trained, that)

how come

How come John left early ?
mwe(How, come)
mark(left, How)

had better (and ‘d better)

You had better apologize
mwe(had, better)
aux(had, apologize)

Not mwes

The following are not annotated as mwes, but are instead labeled according to their apparent internal structure.

out of, off of (All double prepositions denoting spatial relations are annotated with two cases on the nominal)

Get out of there !
nmod(Get, there)
case(there, out)
case(there, of)

Get off of that !
nmod(Get, that)
case(that, off)
case(that, of)

by far

Dogs are the best animal by far
nmod(animal, far)
case(far, by)

what about

What about John ?
nmod(What, John)
case(John, about)

at all

I don't like her at all
nmod(like, all)
case(all, at)

at most, at least (when used for quantities. To determine whether at least should be an mwe or not in borderline cases, substitute it with at most; if the sentence remains grammatical, it should receive its surface analysis)

at most 50 percent
nmod:npmod(percent, most)
case(most, at)

at least 50 percent
nmod:npmod(percent, least)
case(least, at)

at best, at worst

At best , they were guesses
nmod:npmod(guesses, best)
case(best, At)

At worst , they were lies
nmod:npmod(lies, worst)
case(worst, At)

what if

What if John left early ?
advcl(What, left)
mark(left, if)

so long

So long , Ham 's ... you will be missed
advmod(long, So)
vocative(long, Ham)
parataxis(long, missed)