Dependencies
Note: nmod, neg, and punct appear in two places.
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acl
: clausal modifier of noun
The dependency type acl
is used for relative clauses and clausal complements of nouns.
For a relative clause, the head of the dependency is the noun modified by the clause,
and the dependant is the main predicate of the clause.
Formal noun こと / koto “fact” can have a clausal complement and forms a noun phrase denoting the action expressed by the clause. For a example, 走る / hashiru “run” こと / koto “fact” means running (or a fact that someone runs).
advcl
: adverbial clause modifier
The dependency type advcl
is reserved for subordinate clauses.
The head of the dependency is the main predicate of the main clause,
and the dependant is the main predicate of the subordinate clause.
A subordinate clauses consists of a clause and a word of “SCONJ”,
and is typically followed by the main clause.
advmod
: adverbial modifier
The dependency type advmod
is used for adverbial modifiers of verbs, nominal verbs, adjectives and nominal adjectives.
amod
: adjectival modifier
Adjectival modifiers (amod
) are adjectives and nominal adjectives.
A nominal adjective must be followed by an auxiliary な / na to modify a noun.
Note that adjectival modifiers with arguments are tagged as “acl”.
auxpass
: passive auxiliary
The passive auxiliaries in Japanese are れる / reru and られる / rareru. They attach to the main verbs to form verbal phrases in the passive voice. Note that passivization causes case alternations.
case
: case marking
In Japanese, case markers are particles attaching to a noun phrase. The particles are tagged as “ADP” in UD Japanese.
Typical case markers are as follows:
- が / ga for nominative
- を / o for accusative
- に / ni for dative, locative etc.
- の / no for genitive
- へ / e for locative etc.
cc
: coordinating conjunction
The dependency type cc
is used for CONJ, that is, conjunction and coordinating conjunctive particle (e.g. と / to, や / ya).
See the example of conj.
ccomp
: clausal complement
Clausal complements are typically introduced by a postpositional particle と / to “that”.
The head of the dependency ccomp
is the main verb of the main clause, and
the dependant is the main predicate of the complement.
compound
: compound
The dependency type compound
in UD Japanese is used for noun compounds and verb compounds.
conj
: conjunct
The dependency type conj
represents coordination.
Following the definition of UD, the head of the dependency is the first conjunct.
cop
: copula
The dependency type cop
is reserved for a copular auxiliary だ / da.
The auxiliary typically follows a noun phrase to form a copular clause.
A postpositional phrase with a nominative case is commonly needed to complete sentence.
For example, dependencies for 太郎 は 学生 だ 。/ Taro ha gakusei da “Taro is a student.” are as follows.
Note that we treat the auxiliary だ / da after adjectives as aux. Therefore dependencies for さくら が きれい だ 。 / sakura ga kirei da “The cherry blossoms are beautiful.” do not include the `cop’ relation.
csubj
: clausal subject
A clausal subject (csubj
) is commonly introduced by a pair of particles,
a nominal marker の / no and a nominative case marker が / ga.
When the phrase is topicalized, the nominative が / ga is replaced by は / wa.
csubjpass
: clausal passive subject
The dependency type csubjpass
is used for clausal subjects of passive verbs.
det
: determiner
The dependency type det
is for a closed set of adnominals.
The full list of the adnominals is as follows:
- この / kono “this”
- こんな / konna “this”
- あの / ano “that”
- あんな / an’na “that”
- その / sono “that”
- そんな / son’na “that”
- どの / dono “which”
- どんな / don’na “which”
discourse
: discourse element
Discourse elements (discourse
) in UD Japanese is interjection and emoticons.
dislocated
: dislocated elements
The dependency type dislocated
is used for topic phrases.
A topic phrase introduces the topic of a sentence, and are typically prepositional phrases with a topic marker は / ha.
One of the most famous examples is 象 は 鼻 が 長い 。/ zou wa hana ga nagai “For elephants, noses are long.”
Note that the relation is not used for a topicalized phrase that is also a core argument of the sentence.
dobj
: direct object
Direct object (typically a postpositional phrase with a case marker を / o).
iobj
: indirect object
Indirect object (typicall a postpositional phrase with a case marker に / ni).
mark
: marker
Subordinating conjunction, conjunctive particle, complementizer (と / to, か / ka).
neg
: negation modifier
Negation with ない / nai, ず / zu for clausal predicates. Negation with 不 / fu, 非 / hi for Noun dependents.